SOCIOLOGICAL THINKERS-1 (SEMESTER-5) MAX WEBER- Ideal Types

 Max Weber, known as one of the founding fathers of sociology, contributed to sociology in enormous ways. He is best known for his thesis of “protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism”, bureaucracy, ideal type, social action, interpretive sociology etc. His primary focus was on the subjective meanings that human actors attach to their actions. He bridges the gap between objectivity and subjectivity and opens new vistas for sociology. He lies somewhere between positivist and anti positivist because his theories are more along the lines of Idealism, whereas the methodology he used his scientific.

 

His methodology focuses on -Ideal types (for example he compared the ideal types of protestant ethics and the ideal types of spirit of capitalism - they matched, and came up with his work how protest and ethics promote capitalism) and he uses ideal types to study social actions - as a tool to look at real cases and compare them to the ideal types to see where they fall.

Ideal types:-

Weber defines “Ideal Types” as analytical accentuation of certain features of reality. To explain ideal types, he explains what all are not ideal types- 

1.    Ideal type is not a description of social reality.

2.    Ideal type is not a hypothesis (as two or more ideal types can develop hypothesis and not a single one).

3.  Ideal type is not an average type (as core features are not equivalent to common features).

Weber gives four features of Ideal types- 

 

1.    It is a scientific conceptual tool because it involves selection and abstraction.

2.    It is a pure type because it seeks what is essential or distinct.

3.    It is ideal not in an evaluative sense, but in a logical sense.

4.  Ideal types can be constructed on both static and dynamic reality. [Static- bureaucracy whereas, dynamic- bureaucratisation.]

 

He developed four types of Ideal types on 2 grounds- 

 

On certain grounds (of reality), he created four types of Ideal type’s i.e. 

1.    Ideal types of historical particulars- These are Ideal Types of particular historical phenomena like some ancient city, protestant ethic and capitalism.

2.    Ideal Types of Abstract Phenomena in Social Reality- It involves developing abstract phenomena like social action and authority which can be used to understand a social phenomenon.

3.    Ideal Types of Particular Behaviour – He also developed Ideal Types of particular behaviours like economic and political behaviour.

4.    Structural Ideal Types – These are forms taken by the causes and consequences of social action, For example, Traditional Domination

Usage of Ideal type-

Weber propagates 6 uses of Ideal types- 

1.    Clarification:- 

Weber explains, reality is multidimensional, instinctive and diverse; and our knowledge is fragmentary in nature. So it is not possible to grasp reality in one way. But ideal types help to grasp reality through the multiple types. Ideal types help to make reality understandable. It states the general and specific features together.

 

2.    Hypothesis construction:- 

Ideal types are used to distinguish one from another. At the same time, two or more ideal tiles can be used for formulating the relation between them and to develop hypothesis. 

 

3.    Classification:- 

Ideal types are used for classification by distinguishing it from non types. For instance, if there are ideal types for capitalism, one can know what does not fall under the ambit of capitalism.

 

4.    Explanation:- 

It has a theoretical role to play i.e. it can be used for building theoretical models.

 

5.    Comparison:- 

Ideal types are yardsticks which help in comparing different empirical cases. Weber describes “comparison” the most important feature of Ideal types, as it is used in research methodology.  He explains how bureaucracy has a power relation, but it might not match with reality, if one goes to field. So by taking ideal types as a yardstick, one can compare different cases in reality. Very often, there is to be a lack of correspondence from Ideal types and in that case, the work of research is to examine the nature and extent of variation and the cause for variation. This variation can be measured with some components.

 

6.    Prediction:- 

Ideal types are unique cases but can be possible in reality in future i.e. the society can accept any ideal type in future. In that way, ideal types work as a possibility in future (hence prediction becomes an important characteristic of Ideal types).

 

 

Weber uses ideal types to study social action, as a tool to look at real cases and compare them to the ideal types to see where they fall. But understanding this entails us to know what social actions are. 

Social action:-

Weber in his book ‘methodology of social sciences’ defines that, any action is social if meaning is attached to it by the actor. Social actions are oriented towards others, either physically or mentally present. For example, winking with a motive is a social action. According to Weber, the scope of sociology is to interpret meaning attached to the action by the actor to establish cause and effect. He also propounds the methodology to study this.

 

Weber argued that before the cause of an action could be ascertained, understanding the meaning attached to it by the actor is prerequisite. He explains,”meaning" may be of two kinds-

 

1. Literal meaning (Aktuelles Verstehen) - Which focuses on direct observational understanding, where one just have to observe what people are doing.

 

2.    Subjective meaning ( Eklarendes Verstehen)-  Which focuses on empathetic understanding, where sociologist must try to understand the meaning of an act in terms of the motives that have given rise to it. 

 

For example if somebody is taking bribe, subjective meaning aims at knowing the deeper veiled reason behind this action? Also, if somebody is chopping wood, observational understanding focuses on understanding what the person is doing, by looking at someone's emotional state from their body language or facial expression. But empathetic understanding would require finding out why someone is chopping wood and what is their motive behind it.  Hence Weber suggests, observational understanding alone is not sufficient to explain social action and in sociology addressing subjectivity is important.

 

This point can be illustrated by a quote from one of his most important works ‘Economy and Society’, published in the 1920s, in which he said- 

 

‘Sociology is a science concerning itself with interpretive understanding of social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its course and consequences.’

 

 

(CAN LEAVE – IF PAUCITY OF TIME

OR

IF WORD LIMIT IS EXCEEDING)

Weber provides the method (i.e. Verstehen), to study social actions. He explains certain steps that the investigator should follow to study social actions. The first step suggests investigator to reconstruct choices and constraints of actors. This implies that the investigator should put himself into the shoes of actor. Then, the investigator should come at same wavelength with the actor i.e. in terms of communication, appearance and behaviour. In the third step, Weber suggests that the investigator should detach his interest in actor’s action and situations that he can accomplish objectivity. Then, the investigator should interact with the actor to understand meanings attached.

Stages of Social Action:-

Weber has described various stages of social action relating to various types and these are – 

 

1.    Rational-purposeful stage: - In this stage the actions covered are primarily guided by reason and discrimination. The pursuit of goals is a corollary of the facts; the rational choice involves consciousness of ends or goals.

2.    Valuation stage: - Religious and ethical actions come under this category. In this stage the actions prevailing, are pertaining to values.

3.    Emotional stage: - An emotional reaction to the action of others comes under this stage. Here there is expression of love, hatred, sympathy, compassion or pity in response to the behaviour of other individuals prevails.

4.    Traditional stage: - This stage is characterised by long standing customs, traditions and usages. So all those actions, which are guided and determined by customs and traditions are covered under this category.

 

Characteristics of Social Action:-

Weber explains some characteristics of social actions- 

 

1.    Social action may be influenced by an action of past, present or future:-

Weber’s focus on the mutual orientation of social actors and on the “understandable” motives of their actions was anchored in methodological considerations, which account for much of the distinctiveness of his approach. Social action may be influenced by the action of past, present and future. So social action is a result or a modification of some action of other person or persons.

 

2.    Social action presupposes the existence of other individual and some action by him:- 

 

Social action presupposes the existence of other individual and some action by him. This means there can be no social action in isolation. Therefore social action is possible if there is another human being whose action or behaviour is prompting to the giving individual to act in a particular manner.

 

3.    Necessity of subjective meaning:-

 

In a social act it is necessary that it should have subjective meaning. A blind imitation without any understanding of the nature of act being imitated is not social action. Weber’s primary focus was on the subjective meanings that human actors attach to their actions in their mutual orientations within specific socio-historical contexts.

Behaviour devoid of such meaning falls outside the purview of sociology. “Action is Social” Weber says. According to Weber, it is action when man assigns a certain meaning to his conduct and the action is social when, by the meaning he gives it, it relates to the behaviour of other persons and is oriented towards their behaviour.

 

4.    It is oriented in its course:-

 

For Weber human action is social in so far as “the acting individual attaches a subjective meaning to it.” Mere behaviour becomes action when it derives dealings with others and when it is meaningful; that is oriented in its course. The basic requirement is that the actor is aware of what he or she is doing which can be analyzed in terms of their intentions, motives and feelings as they are experienced.

Types of social actions- 

Weber believes that there are four ideal types of social actions. Ideal types are used as a tool to look at real cases and compare them to the ideal types to see where they fall. No social action is purely just one of the four types-

 

1.    Traditional Social Action: actions controlled by traditions, “the way it has always been done”

2.    Affective Social Action: actions determined by one’s specific affections and emotional state, you do not think about the consequences

3.    Value Rational Social Action: actions that are determined by a conscious belief in the inherent value of a type of behaviour (example:- religion)

4.    End-Rational Social Action: actions that are carried out to achieve a certain goal i.e. they are done to achieve any desired result.

 

To illustrate these different types of action consider someone “going to school” in terms of these four ideal types: Traditionally, one may attend college because her grandparents, parents, aunts, and uncles have as well. They wish to continue the family tradition and continue with college as well. When relating to affective, one may go to school just because they enjoy learning. With value rational, one may attend college because it’s a part of his/her religion that everyone must receive the proper education. Therefore, this person attends college for that reason only. Finally, one may go to college because he/she may want an amazing job in the future and in order to get that job, he/she needs a college degree (which would be value-rational action. Weber believes that in modern societies, the latter predominates.

Weber coined the concept “social relationship” to describe patterned human interaction which is intentional, meaningful and symbolic”, but some say that it can be classifies into more than this. Weber thought of these as “patterns of human behaviour” attributable to the recognition of normative expectations. The six types have been identified and defined by Larson:

1.    Usage: Described behaviour performed simply to conform to a style of pattern, for example, social etiquette.

2.    Custom: Described habitual practices with roots in antiquity.

3.    Rational orientation: Designated that variety of social action which is consequence of actors orienting themselves to one another on the basis of similar ulterior expectations, for example mutual self-interest.

4.    Fashion: Described social action which is the result of adherence to contemporary fad.

5.    Convention: Designated that type of social action performed in recognition of strong moral obligation in the manner of Sumner’s mores.

6.    Law: Described that type of social action performed in recognition of codified expectation and restriction.

Criticisms:-

Weber’s theory of social action and his methodology of ideal types are criticized on various grounds-

1.    Other scholars feel that, there might well be more types of motivation than just four types (as also given by Larson above).

2.    Parsons criticises Weber for stressing too much the element of voluntary subjective meaning of the actor. For Parsons, the action of an actor is involuntary; it is behaviour directed by the meanings attached by actors to things and people.

Appreciation:-

Though there’s no denying that Weber is one of the pioneers of subjectivity in sociology and has successfully bridged the gap between subjectivity and objectivity. He recognized that we need to understand individual meanings to understand how societies change (unlike Marxism). Max Weber didn’t just believe that individuals shape society – societies encourage certain types of motive for action. Despite the above shortcomings Weber’s theory of social action has inspired sociologists of subsequent generations.